Enhanced automatic wafer centering system and techniques for same

ABSTRACT

Systems and techniques for determining and correcting inter-wafer misalignments in a stack of wafers transported by a wafer handling robot are discussed. An enhanced automatic wafer centering system is provided that may be used to determine a smallest circle associated with the stack of wafers, which may then be used to determine whether or not the stack of wafer meets various process requirements and/or if a centering correction can be made to better align the wafers with a receiving station coordinate frame.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

A PCT Request Form is filed concurrently with this specification as partof the present application. Each application that the presentapplication claims benefit of or priority to as identified in theconcurrently filed PCT Request Form is incorporated by reference hereinin their entireties and for all purposes

BACKGROUND

Semiconductor processing tools typically use wafer-handling robots tomove circular wafers (such wafers have a nominally circular shape butmay have notches or flats at one or more locations to allow forrotational indexing to be done or rotational position to be determined)between stations or equipment in the semiconductor processing tool. Somewafer-handling robots are equipped with “blade” type end effectors thatare designed to lift and support wafers from underneath, like a spatula.The wafers supported by such blade-type end effectors are typically heldin place by friction and may be dislodged or shifted relative to the endeffector through the application of sufficient lateral force to thewafer, e.g., such as may be exerted on the wafer due to collision withanother object or through inertial effects. For example, if the endeffector undergoes accelerations that result in the friction forcesholding the wafer in place being overcome, then there may be slippagebetween the wafer and the end effector. Wafers may also occasionally bemisplaced on an end effector, resulting in an initial “slippage” effect,e.g., with the wafer not being appropriately centered.

SUMMARY

Details of one or more implementations of the subject matter describedin this specification are set forth in the accompanying drawings and thedescription below. Other features, aspects, and advantages will becomeapparent from the description, the drawings, and the claims.

In some implementations, an apparatus may be provided for handling oneor more wafers of a nominal diameter D₁. The apparatus may include awafer handling robot configured to support the one or more wafers ofnominal diameter D₁ when the one or more wafers of nominal diameter D₁are placed thereupon, a first edge-detection system, and a controllerthat includes one or more processors and one or more memory devices. Theone or more processors, the one or more memory devices, the waferhandling robot, and the first edge-detection system may be operablyconnected with each other, and the one or more memory devices may storecomputer-executable instructions for controlling the one or moreprocessors to: a) obtain information regarding a first reference pointof the wafer handling robot; b) determine that a first set of one ormore wafers is supported by the wafer handling robot, the first set ofone or more wafers defining a silhouette edge in a horizontal plane whenviewed along a vertical axis; c) cause the first edge-detection systemto obtain information indicative of first horizontal coordinates of atleast five points along the silhouette edge of the first set of one ormore wafers relative to the first reference point; d) determine, for thefirst set of one or more wafers, the smallest circle that, when viewedalong a vertical axis, circumscribes the first horizontal coordinates ofthe at least five points determined in (c); e) determine, for the firstset of one or more wafers, a first center deviation by determininginformation indicative of the length and direction of a first referenceline segment extending from the center of the smallest circle for thefirst set of one or more wafers to the first reference point; f)determine a first slip amount for the first set of one or more wafersthat is based on the difference between the diameter of the smallestcircle and D₁; and g) determine whether the first slip amount for thefirst set of one or more wafers exceeds a first threshold amount.

In some implementation of the apparatus, the first edge-detection systemmay include three first through-beam optical sensors, and each firstthrough-beam optical sensor may be: configured to emit a correspondingvertically oriented optical beam when activated, positioned such thatthe furthest horizontal distance between any of the optical beams, whenthe first through-beam optical sensors are activated, is less than D₁,and configured to register, when the first through-beam optical sensoris activated, when the optical beam emitted thereby intersects an edgeof an object.

In some implementations of the apparatus, the first edge-detectionsystem may include a machine-vision system and the machine-vision systemmay be configured to obtain the information indicative of the firsthorizontal coordinates of the at least five points along the silhouetteedge of the first set of one or more wafers relative to the firstreference point.

In some implementations of the apparatus, the first edge-detectionsystem includes one or more of: a set of three or more directthrough-beam optical sensors, a set of three or more reflectivethrough-beam optical sensors, a machine vision measurement system, or aset of three or more capacitive sensors.

In some implementations of the apparatus, the wafer handling robot mayinclude an end effector having N blades, the first set of one or morewafers may include N or fewer wafers, each blade may be configured tosupport one of the wafers of nominal diameter D₁, and N may be greaterthan 1.

In some implementations of the apparatus, the N blades may include afirst set of N-1 blades that are fixed with respect to one another, thefirst set of N-1 blades may be configured to move as a unit relative toa portion of the wafer handling robot to which the first set of N-1blades are attached, and the blade of the end effector that is not inthe first set of N-1 blades may be configured to be movable relative tothe portion of the wafer handling robot to which the first set of N-1blades are attached independently of the first set of N-1 blades.

In some such implementations, N may equal 5.

In some implementations of the apparatus, the wafer handling robot mayinclude an end effector having exactly one blade and the first set ofone or more wafers may include exactly one wafer.

In some implementations of the apparatus, the apparatus may furtherinclude a first wafer receptacle including one or more first wafersupports configured to receive the first set of one or more wafers. Insuch implementations, the one or more first wafer supports may each beconfigured to support a wafer placed thereupon and within a limit regionenvelope associated with the first wafer receptacle and having a minimumhorizontal dimension of D₂, wherein D₂ is greater than D₁ by at leastthe first threshold amount. In some such implementations of theapparatus, the first wafer receptacle may further include a secondedge-detection system configured to register, when the secondedge-detection system is activated, when an edge of an object intersectsone or more second horizontal locations monitored by that secondedge-detection system.

In some implementations of the apparatus, the one or more memory devicesmay further store computer-executable instructions for furthercontrolling the one or more processors to cause the wafer handling robotto place at least some of the wafers in the first set of one or morewafers into the first wafer receptacle responsive, at least in part, toa determination that the first slip amount for the first set of one ormore wafers is less than the first threshold amount.

In some further implementations of the apparatus, the one or more memorydevices may further store computer-executable instructions for furthercontrolling the one or more processors to: determine a first waferoffset for the first set of one or more wafers based on the informationindicative of the length and orientation of the first reference linesegment for the first set of one or more wafers; and cause the waferhandling robot to operate, during one or more operations where the firstset of one or more wafers is supported by the wafer handling robot, toplace the at least some of the wafers in the first set of one or morewafers into the first wafer receptacle in accordance with the firstwafer offset.

In some implementations of the apparatus, the one or more memory devicesmay further store computer-executable instructions for furthercontrolling the one or more processors to cause the wafer handling robotto place the wafers in the first set of one or more wafers into a secondwafer receptacle responsive, at least in part, to a determination thatthe first slip amount for the first set of one or more wafers is morethan the first threshold amount; and cause, thereafter and during asecond time period, the wafer handling robot to, for each wafer in thefirst set of wafers, retrieve the wafer from the second waferreceptacle, cause the first edge-detection system, while the wafer issupported by the wafer handling robot, to obtain information indicativeof at least three second horizontal coordinates along the silhouetteedge of the wafer relative to the first reference point, determine anestimated center point of the wafer relative to the first referencepoint using the at least three second horizontal coordinates, determinea second center deviation by determining information indicative of thelength and direction of a second reference line segment extending fromthe estimated center point of the wafer to the first reference point,determine a second wafer offset for the wafer based on the informationindicative of the length and orientation of the second reference linesegment for the wafer, and cause the wafer handling robot to operate,during one or more operations where the wafers is supported by the waferhandling robot, to place the wafer into the first wafer receptacle inaccordance with the second wafer offset.

In some implementations, a method for handling one or more wafers of anominal diameter D₁ may be provided. The method may include a)retrieving a first set of one or more wafers of nominal diameter D₁using a wafer handling robot configured to support the first set of oneor more wafers when the first set of one or more wafers is placedthereupon, the first set of one or more wafers defining a silhouetteedge in a horizontal plane when viewed along a vertical axis; b)obtaining information regarding a first reference point of the waferhandling robot using a first edge-detection system; c) obtaininginformation indicative of first horizontal coordinates of at least fivepoints along the silhouette edge of the first set of one or more wafersrelative to the first reference point using the first edge-detectionsystem; d) determining, for the first set of one or more wafers, thesmallest circle that, when viewed along a vertical axis, circumscribesthe first horizontal coordinates of the at least five points determinedin (c); e) determining, for the first set of one or more wafers, a firstcenter deviation by determining information indicative of the length anddirection of a first reference line segment extending from the center ofthe smallest circle for the first set of one or more wafers to the firstreference point; f) determining a first slip amount for the first set ofone or more wafers that is based on the difference between the diameterof the smallest circle and D₁; and g) determining whether the first slipamount for the first set of one or more wafers exceeds a first thresholdamount.

In some implementations of the method, the first edge-detection systemmay include three first through-beam optical sensors and each firstthrough-beam optical sensor may be configured to emit a correspondingvertically oriented optical beam when activated, positioned such thatthe furthest horizontal distance between any of the optical beams, whenthe first through-beam optical sensors are activated, is less than D₁,and configured to register, when the first through-beam optical sensoris activated, when the optical beam emitted thereby intersects an edgeof an object. In such implementations, (c) may be performed by obtaininghorizontal coordinates for each instance where the silhouette edge ofthe first set of one or more wafers intersects one of the optical beamsemitted by one of the first through-beam optical sensors.

In some implementations of the method, the first edge-detection systemmay include a machine-vision system configured to obtain the informationindicative of the first horizontal coordinates of the at least fivepoints along the silhouette edge of the first set of one or more wafersrelative to the first reference point, and (c) may be performed usingthe machine-vision system to obtain the horizontal coordinates of the atleast five points.

In some implementations of the method, the first edge-detection systemmay include one or more items selected from the group consisting of: aset of three or more direct through-beam optical sensors, a set of threeor more reflective through-beam optical sensors, a machine visionmeasurement system, and a set of three or more capacitive sensors.

In some implementations of the method, the wafer handling robot mayinclude an end effector having N blades, the first set of one or morewafers may include N or fewer wafers, each blade may be configured tosupport one of the wafers of nominal diameter D₁, and N may be greaterthan 1.

In some further implementations of the method, the N blades may includea first set of N-1 blades that are fixed with respect to one another,the first set of N-1 blades may be configured to move as a unit relativea portion of the wafer handling robot to which the first set of N-1blades are attached, and the blade of the end effector that is not inthe first set of N-1 blades may be configured to be movable relative tothe portion of the wafer handling robot to which the first set of N-1blades are attached independently of the first set of N-1 blades. Insome such implementations of the method, N may equal 5.

In some implementations of the method, the wafer handling robot mayinclude an end effector having exactly one blade and the first set ofone or more wafers may include exactly one wafer.

In some implementations of the method, D₁ may be less than D₂ by atleast the first threshold amount, D₂ may be the minimum horizontaldimension of a limit region envelope associated with a first waferreceptacle including one or more first wafer supports configured toreceive the first set of one or more wafers, and the one or more firstwafer supports may each be configured to support a wafer placedthereupon and within the limit region envelope.

In some such implementations, the first wafer receptacle may furtherinclude a second edge-detection system configured to register, when thesecond edge-detection system is activated, when an edge of an objectintersects one or more second horizontal locations monitored by thatsecond edge-detection system.

In some implementations of the method, the method may further includedetermining, in (g), that the first slip amount for the first set of oneor more wafers is less than the first threshold amount, and h) causingthe wafer handling robot to place at least some of the wafers in thefirst set of one or more wafers into the first wafer receptacleresponsive, at least in part, to the determination that the first slipamount for the first set of one or more wafers is less than the firstthreshold amount. In some such implementations of the method, the methodmay further include i) determining a first wafer offset for the firstset of one or more wafers based on the information indicative of thelength and orientation of the first reference line segment for the firstset of one or more wafers, and j) causing the wafer handling robot tooperate, during one or more operations where the first set of one ormore wafers is supported by the wafer handling robot, to place the atleast some of the wafers in the first set of one or more wafers into thefirst wafer receptacle in accordance with the first wafer offset.

In some implementations of the method, the method may further include h)causing the wafer handling robot to place the wafers in the first set ofone or more wafers into a second wafer receptacle responsive, at leastin part, to a determination that the first slip amount for the first setof one or more wafers is more than the first threshold amount; and i)causing, after (h) and during a second time period, the wafer handlingrobot to, for each wafer in the first set of wafers: retrieve the waferfrom the second wafer receptacle, cause the first edge-detection system,while the wafer is supported by the wafer handling robot, to obtaininformation indicative of at least three second horizontal coordinatesalong the silhouette edge of the wafer relative to the first referencepoint, determine an estimated center point of the wafer relative to thefirst reference point using the at least three second horizontalcoordinates, determine a second center deviation by determininginformation indicative of the length and direction of a second referenceline segment extending from the estimated center point of the wafer tothe first reference point, determine a second wafer offset for the waferbased on the information indicative of the length and orientation of thesecond reference line segment for the wafer, and cause the waferhandling robot to operate, during one or more operations where thewafers is supported by the wafer handling robot, to place the wafer intothe first wafer receptacle in accordance with the second wafer offset.

In some implementations, a non-transitory, computer-readable medium maybe provided that stores computer-executable instructions thereon forcontrolling one or more processors to: a) cause a first set of one ormore wafers of nominal diameter D₁ to be retrieved using a waferhandling robot configured to support the first set of one or more waferswhen the first set of one or more wafers is placed thereupon, the firstset of one or more wafers defining a silhouette edge in a horizontalplane when viewed along a vertical axis; b) obtain information regardinga first reference point of the wafer handling robot using a firstedge-detection system; c) obtain information indicative of firsthorizontal coordinates of at least five points along the silhouette edgeof the first set of one or more wafers relative to the first referencepoint using the first edge-detection system; d) determine, for the firstset of one or more wafers, the smallest circle that, when viewed along avertical axis, circumscribes the first horizontal coordinates of the atleast five points determined in (c); e) determine, for the first set ofone or more wafers, a first center deviation by determining informationindicative of the length and direction of a first reference line segmentextending from the center of the smallest circle for the first set ofone or more wafers to the first reference point; f) determine a firstslip amount for the first set of one or more wafers that is based on thedifference between the diameter of the smallest circle and D₁; and g)determine whether the first slip amount for the first set of one or morewafers exceeds a first threshold amount.

In some implementations of the non-transitory, computer-readable medium,the first edge-detection system may include three first through-beamoptical sensors where each first through-beam optical sensor is:configured to emit a corresponding vertically oriented optical beam whenactivated, positioned such that the furthest horizontal distance betweenany of the optical beams, when the first through-beam optical sensorsare activated, is less than D₁, and configured to register, when thefirst through-beam optical sensor is activated, when the optical beamemitted thereby intersects an edge of an object. In suchimplementations, the non-transitory, computer-readable medium mayfurther store instructions for controlling the one or more processors tooperate the three first through-beam optical sensors to cause thehorizontal coordinates of (c) to be obtained for each instance where thesilhouette edge of the first set of one or more wafers intersects one ofthe optical beams emitted by one of the first through-beam opticalsensors.

In some implementations of the non-transitory, computer-readable medium,the first edge-detection system may include a machine-vision system andthe machine-vision system is configured to obtain the informationindicative of the first horizontal coordinates of the at least fivepoints along the silhouette edge of the first set of one or more wafersrelative to the first reference point; and the non-transitory,computer-readable medium may further store instructions for controllingthe one or more processors to interface with the machine-vision systemand to cause the horizontal coordinates of (c) to be obtained using themachine-vision system.

In some implementations of the non-transitory, computer-readable medium,the first edge-detection system may include, and the non-transitory,computer-readable medium may further store instructions causing the oneor more processors to interface and communicate with, one or more of: aset of three or more direct through-beam optical sensors, a set of threeor more reflective through-beam optical sensors, a machine visionmeasurement system, or a set of three or more capacitive sensors.

In some implementations of the non-transitory, computer-readable medium,D₁ may be less than D₂ by at least the first threshold amount, D₂ may bethe minimum horizontal dimension of a limit region envelope associatedwith a first wafer receptacle including one or more first wafer supportsconfigured to receive the first set of one or more wafers, and the oneor more first wafer supports may each be configured to support a waferplaced thereupon and within the limit region envelope.

In some implementations of the non-transitory, computer-readable medium,the non-transitory, computer-readable medium may further storeinstructions for controlling the one or more processors to: determine,in (g), that the first slip amount for the first set of one or morewafers is less than the first threshold amount, and h) cause the waferhandling robot to place at least some of the wafers in the first set ofone or more wafers into the first wafer receptacle responsive, at leastin part, to the determination that the first slip amount for the firstset of one or more wafers is less than the first threshold amount.

In some such implementations of the non-transitory, computer-readablemedium, the non-transitory, computer-readable medium may further storeinstructions for controlling the one or more processors to: i) determinea first wafer offset for the first set of one or more wafers based onthe information indicative of the length and orientation of the firstreference line segment for the first set of one or more wafers; and j)cause the wafer handling robot to operate, during one or more operationswhere the first set of one or more wafers is supported by the waferhandling robot, to place the at least some of the wafers in the firstset of one or more wafers into the first wafer receptacle in accordancewith the first wafer offset.

In some implementations of the non-transitory, computer-readable medium,the non-transitory, computer-readable medium may further storeinstructions for controlling the one or more processors to: h) cause thewafer handling robot to place the wafers in the first set of one or morewafers into a second wafer receptacle responsive, at least in part, to adetermination that the first slip amount for the first set of one ormore wafers is more than the first threshold amount; and i) cause, after(h) and during a second time period, the wafer handling robot to, foreach wafer in the first set of wafers: retrieve the wafer from thesecond wafer receptacle, cause the first edge-detection system, whilethe wafer is supported by the wafer handling robot, to obtaininformation indicative of at least three second horizontal coordinatesalong the silhouette edge of the wafer relative to the first referencepoint, determine an estimated center point of the wafer relative to thefirst reference point using the at least three second horizontalcoordinates, determine a second center deviation by determininginformation indicative of the length and direction of a second referenceline segment extending from the estimated center point of the wafer tothe first reference point, determine a second wafer offset for the waferbased on the information indicative of the length and orientation of thesecond reference line segment for the wafer, and cause the waferhandling robot to operate, during one or more operations where thewafers is supported by the wafer handling robot, to place the wafer intothe first wafer receptacle in accordance with the second wafer offset.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The various implementations disclosed herein are illustrated by way ofexample, and not by way of limitation, in the figures of theaccompanying drawings, in which like reference numerals refer to similarelements.

FIGS. 1A and 1B depict a stack of wafers that have experiencedinter-wafer misalignment.

FIGS. 2A through 2G depict diagrams of a calibration wafer beingtranslated through optical beams of three through-beam optical sensorsthat are part of an enhanced AWC system.

FIG. 2H depicts potential locations of the through-beam optical sensorsbased on calibration measurements.

FIG. 3 depicts a flow diagram of a technique for using an enhanced AWCsystem.

FIGS. 4 through 13 depict example portions of a semiconductor processingtool that includes an enhanced AWC system in various states ofoperation.

FIGS. 14A through 14G depict diagrams of a top-down view of a stack ofwafers that have been placed on an end effector and translated through aset of three through-beam optical sensors.

FIG. 15 depicts Tables 1 and 2.

FIG. 16 depicts an example smallest circle for a multi-wafer silhouetteedge.

FIG. 17 depicts the smallest circle of FIG. 16, but with the silhouetteedge removed.

The Figures herein are generally not drawn to scale, although variousaspects of the Figures, e.g., as discussed below, may be drawn to scale.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Wafer handling robots are typically equipped with highly precisepositioning sensors that monitor, for example, the amount of rotation ineach robot arm joint. Through measuring such rotations and knowing thedistances between rotational centers of each link in the robot arm, thewafer handling robot is able to track the position of any point on therobot arm, including the end effector, very precisely relative to therobot arm base and world coordinate system.

Wafer handling robots, however, must interact with other objects in thesemiconductor processing tool, e.g., load locks, front-opening unifiedpods (FOUPs), wafer buffers, etc. Such additional components may bemounted in the semiconductor processing tool in various locations, andeach may have its own slight variations in how it is mounted relative tothe other components and/or the wafer handling robot due to assemblytolerances and other factors. Once a wafer handling robot is installedin a tool (and periodically thereafter, e.g., after equipment has beenremoved for service and then reinstalled or replaced), it may be trainedso as to “learn” the precise locations of each potential wafer pick-upand drop-off location (or “station”).

Such training, for example, may be performed by placing the robot arm ina free-movement mode where the robot arm may be freely repositionedthrough the application of external force to the robot arm links andthen positioning the end effector of the robot arm in a desired locationrelative to each wafer station. In most applications, this may involvealigning a nominal center point of an end effector, i.e., a location ofthe end effector that would be coincident with a center line of a waferthat was considered to be optimally supported by the end effector (e.g.,centered between wafer support pads of the end effector or centeredalong a centerline of the end effector) would be aligned with an axis ofthe station that would ideally intersect the center of a wafer that wasperfectly placed on the station. Such positioning of the end effectorrelative to each wafer station may be accomplished through the use of afixture that may be fixed in place relative to the wafer station and/orend effector and that is engineered to allow the end effector to beaccurately positioned. Once such relative positioning has been set up,the wafer handling robot may be caused to “learn” that station position,e.g., the wafer handling robot may determine the location of thatstation position based on the feedback from the wafer handling robotpositioning sensors and other information, e.g., distance betweenrotational centers of the robot arm joints. Once the wafer handlingrobot has learned all of the station locations, the robot may later becaused to return to any learned station location based on the learnedlocation information.

While the robot arm may, by virtue of its positioning sensors, be causedto precisely and repeatedly navigate between the various learned stationlocations during operation, if there is slippage between a wafer and theend effector, then the wafer will, when placed in a station, beoff-center with respect to the ideal or target location for thatstation. In order to correct for such potential misalignment, atechnology called automatic wafer centering may be used.

In equipment with automatic wafer centering (AWC), each station whereprecise wafer placement is required may be equipped with a pair ofthrough-beam optical sensors; each through-beam optical sensor may beconfigured to provide a vertically oriented optical beam. Such sensorsare usually positioned at the entrance to the station such that thewafer edge intersects with each vertically oriented optical beam twice(once with the leading edge of the wafer, once with the trailing edge ofthe wafer) as the wafer is translated through the entrance to thestation by the wafer handling robot. The through-beam optical sensorsmay send a signal to the robot arm controller each time the wafer edgeintersects with one of the optical beams. If the XY locations of thethrough-beam optical sensors and the XY location of the nominal centerpoint of an end effector are known at the time when a through-beamoptical sensor detects an edge intersection with the correspondingoptical beam, then the XY location of the edge intersection relative tothe nominal center point may be determined.

Prior to normal operation of an AWC system, a calibration wafer may beattached to the end effector in a location that is pre-set to becentered at a particular location, e.g., the nominal center pointdiscussed earlier, relative to the end effector using one or more pinsor other securement devices to fix the calibration wafer in placerelative to the end effector in a repeatable and secure manner toprevent the calibration wafer from slipping laterally. The calibrationwafer may be a precision-machined circular disk that has a knowndiameter, e.g., 300 mm. The calibration wafer may then be translatedlinearly through the through-beam optical sensor pair of the AWC, systemso that each through-beam optical sensor detects the edge of thecalibration wafer twice (once as the calibration wafer enters theoptical beam and the second time as the calibration wafer exits theoptical beam) and the XY coordinates of the nominal center point of theend effector may be determined for each intersection of the calibrationwafer edge with the optical beam of each through-beam optical sensor.The XY coordinates of each through-beam optical sensor may be determinedby using the nominal center point coordinates associated with the twoedge intersections detected by that through-beam optical sensor and theknown radius of the calibration wafer. For example, the location of thethrough-beam optical center and the two nominal center point coordinatesmay form a triangle that has one side extending between the two nominalcenter point coordinates (the length of which may be calculated based onthe XY distance between those two coordinates) with the remaining twosides having lengths equal to the radius of the calibration wafer. Basedon such information, two possible locations of the through-beam opticalcenter may be identified (one on either side of the nominal centerpoint). The most likely candidate of the two potential locations maythen be selected (for example, there may be a predefined spatialenvelope within which the location of a through-beam optical sensor maybe expected; one solution may fall within the envelope and the other maybe outside of it—the one within may be selected as the actual location).

After calibration and determination of the locations of the through-beamoptical sensors, the AWC system may be used to scan normal wafers thatmay experience slippage relative to the end effector. When a normalwafer, e.g., a wafer being processed in the semiconductor processingtool, is placed on the end effector and then caused to move through theAWC system, the XY location may be obtained for each location where thewafer edge intersects with the optical beam of one of the through-beamoptical sensors (in effect, the XY location of the through-beam opticalsensor that detected the edge intersection). Based on the XY coordinatesfor each such intersection and the associated XY coordinates of thenominal center point of the end effector at that same time, the XYlocation of the edge intersection point relative to the nominal centerpoint may be determined. Since all four edge intersection points liealong the edge of a circular wafer of known diameter, the location ofthe wafer center relative to the nominal center point of the endeffector may be determined using any three of the four coordinates. In atypical system, four sets of three points may be evaluated to determinegenerally equally sized circles (since they all measure the samecircular wafer) that share the same center point; if one of the circlesthat is determined is too small, then that circle determination may beignored since it is likely the case that one of the edge intersectionsused intersected the wafer edge in a location that is not on thecircular edge, e.g., an indexing notch in the circular edge. In aperfectly centered wafer, the center point of the wafer and the nominalcenter point of the end effector will be coincident with each other inthe XY plane. However, if there is misalignment between the two, thenthe X- and Y-offsets between the nominal center point and the wafercenter points may be determined and then used by the robot armcontroller to adjust the final placement of the wafer at the targetlocation of the station so as to cause the wafer to be re-centered onthe target location.

The present inventors determined that traditional AWC techniques wouldbe non-viable for high-capacity end effectors, i.e., end effectors thatmay transport multiple wafers simultaneously in a stacked arrangement.For example, some end effectors may include multiple, e.g., five, bladesarranged in a vertical stack, with each blade configured to support awafer from below. During movement of wafer handling robots equipped withsuch high-capacity end effectors, each wafer supported thereby mayundergo slippage to different degrees (and even in differentdirections), depending on factors such as contact pad wear variability,wafer variability, and other parameters. An example of such a misalignedwafer stack is shown in FIG. 1; as can be seen, there are five wafers102 placed in the stack 104. The wafers are shown in isolation, althoughin reality they would be supported by some other structure in such astacked arrangement, e.g., an end effector or a wafer receptacle, suchas a FOUP. As a result of such misalignment, the stack of waferssupported by the end effector may not have a not have a circularsilhouette edge when viewed in the XY plane.

The term “silhouette edge,” as used herein, refers to the profiledefined by the outermost edge(s) of a collection of objects whenorthographically projected along an axis and onto a plane perpendicularto that axis. For example, if two 3″ squares were stacked on top of eachother with their centers offset from each other by a distance of 1″along an axis parallel to one of the square edges, the silhouette edgeof such an arrangement in a plane parallel to the plane of the squareswould be a rectangle of 3″ by 4″.

As a result, traditional AWC techniques do not provide results that aresufficiently accurate enough to allow them to be used with stackedwafers. The present inventors conceived of an AWC system in which therewas at least a third through-beam optical sensor in addition to the twothrough-beam optical sensors typically used. In this enhanced AWCsystem, each transit of a wafer through the through-beam optical sensorswould result in at least six XY coordinates instead of the usual four XYcoordinates. These six or more coordinates are then initially used bythe enhanced AWC system in a different manner than the four coordinatesin a typical AWC system. For example, in a typical AWC system, theassumption is made that the wafer has a round silhouette edge with agiven diameter. In the enhanced AWC system described in more detailbelow, no categorical assumptions are made regarding the diameter of thewafers) and, in instances where a stack of wafers is being processed,the circularity of the silhouette edge. Instead, a determination is madeas to the smallest diameter circle (also referred to herein simply asthe “smallest circle”) that circumscribes the six coordinates (or moreif even more through-beam optical sensors are used). This smallestcircle is then used as an approximation of the boundaries of the waferstack.

While the above discussions and the examples discussed elsewhere hereinfocus on optical-through beam sensor systems, the techniques discussedherein may be implemented using any suitable edge-detection system thatis configured to obtain information indicative of horizontal coordinatesassociated with the intersection of an edge of an object, e.g., asemiconductor wafer, with various predefined locations. Suchedge--detection systems may include, for example, one or more sensorsthat are configured to obtain such measurements. Some edge-detectionsystems may, for example, utilize sensors such as through-beam opticalsensors, e.g., sensors that include a light beam emitter configured toemit an optical beam and a photodetector that is positioned to receivethe emitted optical beam; when an object intersects the light beam andinterrupts it, this may be treated as the intersection of the edge ofthe object with the predefined location (which is coincident with theoptical beam). Other edge-detection systems may use other types ofsensors, for example, capacitive, ultrasonic, or other types of sensorsthat are able to obtain information indicative of horizontal coordinatesassociated with the intersections of the edge of an object withpredefined locations. In some implementations, the edge-detection systemmay use a single sensor, e.g., an imaging sensor. In such imagingsensor-based edge-detection systems, machine vision algorithms may beused to monitor the assorted edge-detection locations.

The term “circumscribes,” as used herein, is used in its normal senserelating to geometrical figures, i.e., to describe a figure that touchesthat which it circumscribes without cutting it. In the case of acollection of points, a geometric figure that circumscribes thecollection of points would, for each point in the collection of points,either a) be coincident with or touch the point or b) contain the pointwithin the figure, i.e., none of the points in the collection of pointswould be located outside of the figure (although some or all of them maylie along the exterior boundary of the figure).

Once the smallest circle has been determined as described above, thecenter deviation of the smallest circle relative to the nominal centerpoint may be obtained by determining the XY coordinates of the center ofthe smallest circle relative to the nominal center point of the endeffector. This center deviation may be used as described above withregard to typical automatic wafer centering systems.

In some implementations, enhanced AWC systems may also make adetermination as to information indicative of the diameter of thesmallest circle and then compare that information against acorresponding threshold quantity, e.g., of a cylindrical stay-out zone,for example. If such a comparison indicates that the smallest circle islarger than the stay-out zone, then an error condition may be enabledthat indicates that the wafer stack is sufficiently misaligned thatcorrection based on the center deviation will not be sufficient to meetprocess requirements. Such an error condition may trigger additionaloperations that may be used to address the issue.

While not necessary to understand the operation of enhanced AWC systemsas described herein, FIGS. 2A through 2G depict diagrams of acalibration wafer being translated through optical beams of threethrough-beam optical sensors that are part of an enhanced AWC system.Such an operation may be used to allow the robot arm control system todetermine the locations of the three or more through-beam opticalsensors that are used in each enhanced AWC system.

In FIG. 2A, a calibration wafer 206 of radius R, e.g., 150mm for a 300mm wafer system, is supported by a blade 208 of an end effector (notshown) and pinned into place relative to the blade 208 by pins 210 orother fixturing elements. The calibration wafer 206 is pinned so that ithas a center point that aligns with a nominal center point 214 of theblade 208 (and end effector of which the blade 208 is part). Three ormore (this example uses three) through-beam optical sensors 212 arespaced apart at different intervals with the optical beams that theyemit traveling in a vertically oriented direction (perpendicular to thepage in the context of the Figures). In this example, the through-beamoptical sensors 212 are unevenly spaced such that only one through-beamoptical sensor 212 will generally intersect with the edge of thecalibration wafer 206 at a time (given the general direction of travelof the blade 208), thus providing a form of time-division multiplexingthat may allow for a single channel to be used to receive the signalsfrom the through-beam optical sensors 212. In other implementations, thethrough-beam optical sensors 212 may each be connected to their owndedicated channel such that the output of each through-beam opticalsensor may be independently monitored without resorting to time-divisionmultiplexing. The through-beam optical sensors 212 may be generallydistributed in a manner that will result in a distribution ofmeasurement points that spans most of the wafer(s), e.g., 80% to 90% ormore of the wafer diameter, to provide for widely spaced measurementpoints to allow for more accurate determination of location information.In the examples discussed herein, there are three through-beam opticalsensors positioned at −132 mm, 60 mm, and 142 mm from a reference axisthat would, for example, correspond with the axis along which thenominal center point of the end effector would translate when passedthrough the enhanced AWC system. It will be understood, of course, thatother spacings (and even additional through-beam optical sensors) may beused as well based on the particular constraints of a givensemiconductor processing tool. For example, if the blade of the endeffector is 130 mm wide, then a through-beam optical sensor positionedat 60 mm from the above-discussed frame of reference would likely onlybe able to detect the leading edge of a wafer; the trailing edge wouldbe blocked from the sensor's view by the blade (although this may beavoided by including a cutout or other opening in the end effector inthe vicinity of where the wafer edge is expected to intersect with theoptical beam). Shifting such a through-beam optical sensor by 10 or 15mm outwards would, for example, allow such blockage to be avoided.

FIGS. 2B through 2G depict the calibration wafer 206 during translationof the calibration wafer 206 in a direction perpendicular to the linealong which the through-beam optical sensors 212 are arranged, althoughit will be understood that the calibration wafer may also be translatedthrough the through-beam optical sensors 212 along other directions thatare not necessarily orthogonal to the plane defined by the optical beamsof the through-beam optical sensors 212 to similar effect. In FIGS. 2Bthrough 2G, the calibration wafer 206 and blade 208 are shown stationarywhile the three through-beam optical sensors 212 are translated alongthe translation axis, but this is simply a convention to facilitatefitting the Figures onto fewer pages—in reality, the through-beamoptical sensors 212 would be stationary and the calibration wafer 206and blade 208 would be moved.

As the calibration wafer 206 is translated through the optical beams ofthe through-beam optical sensors 212, the location of the nominal centerpoint 214 (or some other reference point that is fixed with respect tothe end effector) may be identified at each instant in time when theedge of the calibration wafer intersects with one of the through-beamoptical sensors. Thus, in FIG. 2A, when the middle through-beam opticalsensor 212 registers that the edge of the calibration wafer 206 hasintersected the optical beam of that through-beam sensor 212 at point A,the position of the nominal center point 214 may be logged (as indicatedby the circular dotted crosshairs A). Similar nominal wafer centerpositions may be logged for the other intersections of the calibrationwafer 206 edge with one of the through-beam optical sensor 212 opticalbeams, e.g., as shown for intersections/nominal center point 214locations B, C, D, E, and F in FIGS. 2C through 2G.

After such data capture, the captured nominal center point locations andthe radius R of the calibration wafer 206 may be used to determine theactual locations of the through-beam optical sensors 212. For example,nominal center point 214 locations A and F should each be a distance Rfrom the middle through-beam optical sensor, as shown in FIG. 2H; inother words, if circles of radius R were to be centered on each oflocations A and F, those two circles would intersect each othertwice—either intersection point could be a possible location of theassociated through-beam optical sensor 212 (in FIG. 2H, lines of lengthR connect locations A and F, B and E, and C and D with their respectivepotential through-beam optical sensor locations—solid lines are used toindicate the “actual” locations and dotted lines to indicate the“phantom” locations). Once these two locations are determined, the onethat is closest to the theoretical location, e.g., as defined inengineering drawings, of the through-beam optical sensor 212 locationmay be deemed to be the actual through-beam optical sensor 212 location(the actual locations of the through-beam optical sensors 212 willdeviate from those theoretical locations due to factors such asmanufacturing tolerances, assembly misalignment, thermal expansion,etc.—such variance, while significant with respect to wafer alignment,should not cause the through-beam optical sensors to move so far as topotentially be nearer the “phantom” location than the “true” location).

Once the actual locations of the through-beam optical sensors 212 havebeen obtained, the enhanced AWC system may be readied for use. Theabove-discussed example for determining the actual locations of thethrough-beam optical sensors 212 is merely representative; othertechniques may be suitable as well. Moreover, the actual locations ofthe through-beam optical sensors 212 may be periodically re-evaluated,e.g., after a predetermined period of time or after maintenanceoperations have been performed that may have caused changes in equipmentalignment or position.

FIG. 3 depicts a flow diagram of an example technique for using anenhanced AWC system. In block 302, the nominal center point of the endeffector of a wafer handling robot as well as the locations of three ormore through-beam optical sensors may be determined, e.g., through theuse of a calibration wafer and as described previously.

At various points during the discussion of FIG. 3, reference may be madeto any of FIGS. 4 through 13, which depict example portions of asemiconductor processing tool that includes an enhanced AWC system invarious states of operation. Before engaging in discussion of theexample technique of FIG. 3, various aspects of FIG. 4 will bediscussed.

FIG. 4 depicts an isometric view of portions of a semiconductorprocessing tool—specifically, portions relating to wafer handling. Asshown in FIG. 4, a wafer handling robot 418 is provided that includes abase 422, multiple links 420, and an end effector 424. The end effector424, in this example, actually consists of two end effectors: a stackend effector 426 and a single end effector 428. The stack end effector426 in this example includes four blades 408; the single end effector428 includes a single blade 408. As will be seen later, the stack endeffector 426 and the single end effector 428 may be independentlymovable such that the single end effector 428 may be used in isolationto move a single wafer 402 at a time. When the stack end effector 426and the single end effector 428 are aligned with one another, then anentire stack 404 of wafers 402 may be supported and held in unison. Theend effector 424 has a nominal center point 414 which generallycoincides with the center points of the wafers 402 (of course, thewafers 402 may experience misalignment from the nominal center point414, as discussed above).

Also shown in FIG. 4 is a first wafer receptacle 430A with a pluralityof support shelves 432 (equivalent structures may be referred to hereinsimply as “wafer supports”); such a first wafer receptacle 430A may, forexample, be representative of a buffer station for storing multiplewafers, a load lock for transferring wafers into or out of a vacuumenvironment, or any number of other types of equipment. A second waferreceptacle 430B is also depicted and may be configured in a generallysimilar manner to the first wafer receptacle 430A, e.g., have aplurality of support shelves 432 and be configured to receive multiplewafers simultaneously. The second wafer receptacle 430B may, forexample, be a FOUP or other type of wafer-receiving device. The supportshelves 432 in the first wafer receptacle 430A and the second waferreceptacle 430E (and other wafer receiving-structures) may each serve asone of the stations in the semiconductor processing tool of which thedepicted equipment is part. In this example, the first wafer receptacle430A may be equipped with an enhanced AWC system 434 that includes threeor more through-beam optical sensors 412 that emit vertically orientedoptical beams 436. The second wafer receptacle 430B in this example doesnot include an enhanced AWC system 434, although in someimplementations, such an enhanced AWC system may be included in a mannersimilar to that discussed above with respect to the first waferreceptacle 430A.

Also visible in FIG. 4 is a controller 450 that may have one or moreprocessors 452 and one or more memory devices 454. The controller 450may be operably connected with the wafer handling robot 418 and theenhanced AWC system 434 such that it may control the operation of thewafer handling robot 418 and receive data from the enhanced AWC system434. The wafer handling robot 418, for example, may include one or moreposition sensors 448 that may, for example, provide feedback on theposition of the links 420 and the end effector 424 to the controller450. Such feedback may be used to determine, for example, the angularorientations of the links 420 and the end effector 424 relative to thebase 422 and each other, which may be used in conjunction with thedistances between rotational centers for the various rotational jointsin the wafer handling robot 418 to determine the location of any point,e.g., the nominal center point 414, on the wafer handling robot 418 atany time. The controller 450 may also be operably connected, in someimplementations, with a plurality of protrusion sensors 440, which maybe vertically oriented through-beam optical sensors, similar to thoseused in the enhanced AWC system 434. Many of the various systems andcomponents discussed in this paragraph are not shown or called out inFIGS. 5 through 13.

Discussion now returns to FIG. 3. After the locations of the three ormore through-beam optical sensors 212 are determined, the technique mayproceed to block 304, in which a determination may be made that a firstset of one or more wafers are being supported by the end effector (orshould be on the end effector given the current wafer handling stage)and that the first set of one or more wafers should be checked forpositioning and alignment relative to the end effector 424. For thepurposes of this discussion, it will be assumed that the first set ofone or more wafers is a set of five wafers, as depicted in FIGS. 4through #13. However, it will be understood that the first subset of oneor more wafers may include a different number of wafers. In some extremecases, the first subset of one or more wafers may include only a singlewafer. In such instances, there will be no inter-wafer slippage sincethere is only one wafer present. Standard AWC systems may be used insuch cases, although the enhanced AWC techniques discussed herein may beused to provide more accurate placement of single wafers that, forexample, vary from the size of the calibration wafers. Such systems maybe of use when wafers 402 of the same nominal size may be handled by thewafer handling robot 418 while in different physical states, e.g., thesame wafer 402 may have a different diameter when at an elevatedtemperature as compared with when it is at room temperature or someother lower temperature. For example, when a wafer 402 is removed from aprocessing chamber after processing, it may be several hundred degreesCelsius in temperature as compared with, for example, ˜20 C when mostrecently last handled by the wafer handling robot 418. For example, astandard 300 mm semiconductor wafer may increase nearly 0.3 mm in sizewhen at a temperature of 400 C as compared with room temperature. Whilesuch increases in size may be considered quite small, the standardtolerances for wafer diameter for 300 mm wafers are usually only ±0.5mm, so such thermal expansion would be significant in view of theexpected tolerances.

In block 306, the stack 404 of wafers 402 may be translated through theenhanced AWC system 434 during a first time period, as shown in FIG. 5.As the stack 404 translates through the optical beams 436, thethrough-beam optical sensor 412 associated with each optical beam 436may register when the silhouette edge of the stack 404 of wafers 402intersects with each optical beam 436. In block 308, a determination maybe made as to the coordinates of each such intersection; suchcoordinates may be determined relative to the nominal center point 414of the end effector 424, as discussed earlier.

FIGS. 14A through 14G depict diagrams of a top-down view of a stack ofwafers 1402 that have been placed on an end effector 1408 as they aretranslated through a set of three through-beam optical sensors for thepurposes of obtaining such coordinates; for purposes of this discussion,it may be assumed that the elements shown in FIGS. 14A through 14G areanalogous to the corresponding elements in FIGS. 4 and 5. Similarelements in both sets of Figures have the last two digits of theircallout numbers the same.

As seen in FIG. 14A, three through-beam optical sensors 1412 areprovided at various intervals across the path of travel of an endeffector supporting blades 1408 which, in turn, support a stack ofwafers 1402. In this example, the wafers 1402 have experiencedobservable misalignment such that their centers 1403 are clustered in asmall cloud around a nominal center point 1414 of the end effector/blade1408. The outlines of all five wafers 1402 in this case have been drawn,and the silhouette edge 1438 of the stack of wafers 1402 has beenindicated with a thick dotted line to help in illustration. In FIGS. 14Bthrough 14G, the individual wafers 1402 are not shown and the silhouetteedge 1438 alone is shown instead.

In FIG. 14B, the stack of wafers 1402 has been translated through theright-most through-beam optical sensor 1412, causing the robot armcontroller to receive a signal from the right-most through-beam opticalsensor 1412 indicating that the silhouette edge 1438 has intersectedwith the optical beam of that through-beam optical sensor 1412. Thecontroller may then, responsive to receipt of such a signal, determineand store the XY position of the intersection point (x₁, y₁) relative tothe nominal center point 1414. This may, for example, be done throughsimple coordinate translation and subtraction. For example, the XYlocation of the through-beam optical sensor location in the worldcoordinate system and the XY location of the nominal center point 1414in the same coordinate system may both be determined and the resultinglocation of the intersection point (x₁, y₁) relative to the nominalcenter point 1414 may then be determined by subtracting each worldcoordinate of the nominal center point 1414 from the corresponding worldcoordinate of the intersection point (x₁, y₁). At some point, atransformation may be made that causes the coordinates of theintersection point (x₁, y₁) relative to the nominal center point 1414 tobe defined with respect to a coordinate system that is fixed withrespect to the end effector (or other frame of reference). For ease ofreference, the example coordinates of the intersection point (x₁, y₁)relative to the nominal center point 1414 are indicated by the valuesshown on the two orthogonal dash-dot-dash lines in FIG. 14B. Thus, thecoordinates of the intersection point (x₁, y₁) relative to the nominalcenter point 1414 in this example would be (60, 143.4) mm.

This process may be repeated for each subsequent intersection event,e.g., as shown for points (x₂, y₂); (x₃, y₃); (x₄, y₄), (x₅, y₅); and(x₆, y₆) in FIGS. 14C, 14D, 14E, 14F, and 14G, respectively. Once allsix coordinates have been obtained, a determination of the smallestcircle that circumscribes all of the obtained coordinates may be made inblock 310. Any suitable technique for making such a determination may beused. For example, in at least some implementations, a “brute force”approach may be implemented in which all potential triplet combinationsof coordinates are evaluated to determine the parameters of the circlethat passes through all of the coordinates in the triplet. The resultingcircles may then be evaluated to determine a) the circle size and b)whether there are any coordinates that are not on or encircled by thecircle. The smallest of the circles that circumscribes all of thecoordinate points may then be identified and selected as the smallestcircle.

For example, for each coordinate triplet (x₁, y₁); (x₂, y₂); and (x₃,y₃) (where the subscripts are simply used to differentiate within thetriplet and do not necessarily correlate with the subscripts above forthe six example coordinate points), the center coordinates (x_(c),y_(c)) and radius r of the circle that is defined by the coordinatetriplet may be determined according to:

$x_{c} = \frac{{\left( {y_{3} - y_{2}} \right)\left( {x_{1}^{2} + y_{1}^{2}} \right)} + {\left( {y_{1} - y_{3}} \right)\left( {x_{2}^{2} + y_{2}^{2}} \right)} + {\left( {y_{2} - y_{1}} \right)\left( {x_{3}^{2} + y_{3}^{2}} \right)}}{2 \cdot \left\lbrack {{\left( {x_{3} - x_{2}} \right)\left( {y_{2} - y_{1}} \right)} - {\left( {x_{2} - x_{1}} \right)\left( {y_{3} - y_{2}} \right)}} \right\rbrack}$$y_{c} = {- \frac{{\left( {x_{3} - x_{2}} \right)\left( {x_{1}^{2} + y_{1}^{2}} \right)} + {\left( {x_{1} - x_{3}} \right)\left( {x_{2}^{2} + y_{2}^{2}} \right)} + {\left( {x_{2} - x_{1}} \right)\left( {x_{3}^{2} + y_{3}^{2}} \right)}}{2 \cdot \left\lbrack {{\left( {x_{3} - x_{2}} \right)\left( {y_{2} - y_{1}} \right)} - {\left( {x_{2} - x_{1}} \right)\left( {y_{3} - y_{2}} \right)}} \right\rbrack}}$$r = \sqrt{\left( {x_{1} - x_{c}} \right)^{2} + \left( {y_{1} - y_{c}} \right)^{2}}$

In the last equation for r, either of the other two coordinate points inthe triplet may be substituted for (x₁, y₁), of course.

FIG. 15 depicts Tables 1 and 2. Table 1 summarizes the (x, y) coordinatedata for the above example; the coordinates of each intersection pointrelative to the nominal center point 1414 are listed. Table 2 lists alltwenty possible triplet combinations of the six coordinates fromTable 1. Tables 1 and 2 provide data in mm. Thus, for example, thefourth row of data in Table 2 is for coordinates 1 (60, 143.4), 2,(−132, 80.2), and 6 (60, −144.9). The first column indicates therelevant coordinate triplet for each row, the second through seventhcolumns list the XY coordinate data for that triplet, and eighth throughtenth columns list the calculated center coordinates and radius of thecircle that fits the coordinate triplet for each row. Finally, the lastcolumn indicates whether all six of the coordinates from Table 1 wouldbe circumscribed by a circle with the parameters of each row. As can beseen, only four of the twenty coordinate triplets define a circle thatcircumscribes all of the coordinates from Table 1, although. Of thesefour, the sixth circle, i.e., that listed in the sixth row of data inTable 2, has the smallest value and would represent the smallest circleas discussed above. It will be understood that the circlediameter/center point location values listed in Table 2 have beenrounded and may thus give the impression that the 1,3,5 triplet circleand the 3,5,6 triplet circle are the same size, i.e., that there are twosmallest circles that contain all points, although in reality, only oneof them is actually the smallest (in this case, the 1,3,5 triplet circledefines a radius of 156.402 mm, whereas the 3,5,6 triplet circle definesa radius of 156.428 mm). FIG. 16 depicts the example smallest circlediscussed above graphically. In FIG. 16, the silhouette edge 1638 of thewafer stack is shown with diagonal hatching inside to allow it to beeasily discerned from the smallest circle 1642 as defined by row six ofTable 2 (FIG. 16 is not drawn at 1:1 scale relative to the dimensionslisted in Tables 1 and 2, although it is drawn proportionately at about55% scale). All six coordinates from Table 1 are shown. As can be seen,each coordinate lies either on the smallest circle 1642 (such as points1, 3, and 5) or lies within the smallest circle 1642. It will beunderstood that while the present example uses six coordinatemeasurements, satisfactory accuracy may be obtained with smallest circledeterminations made using a set of as few as five coordinatemeasurements (of course, more than six coordinate measurements may beused as well to further increase in accuracy).

The smallest circle thus acts as a proxy for a stack of wafers as awhole. It should be noted that the smallest circle is not 100% accurate,i.e., it is possible to define a smallest circle that circumscribes allmeasured coordinate points along a wafer stack silhouette edge and butthat does not actually circumscribe the entire stack of wafers. FIG. 17illustrates such an example. FIG. 17 depicts the smallest circle of FIG.16, but with the silhouette edge 1638 removed. Additionally, a wafer1602 has been added to the Figure—this wafer, as can be seen, has anoutermost edge that intersects with coordinates (x₁, y₁) and (x₂, y₂).It is thus in a position that would not alter any of the coordinatemeasurements listed in Table 1. However, as can be observed, the outerperimeter of the wafer 1602 extends slightly past the smallest circle.This protrusion, however, is slight and can be accommodated through theuse of an appropriate tolerance or threshold in later operations. Insimulations, the maximum error in the combined slip amount (expressed interms of smallest circle radius minus the nominal wafer radius) andcenter deviation (expressed in terms of displacement distance,regardless of direction) using triplets from six coordinate measurementsresulted in about was about ±10% as compared with, for example, the sameevaluation performed with one hundred coordinate measurements. Sucherror may be easily adjusted out by selecting threshold quantities thatallow for such potential errors.

Once the smallest circle is determined in block 310, a determination maybe made in block 312 as to what the slip amount is for the first set ofone or more wafers. The slip amount is an indication of the magnitude ofrelative slip between the various wafers in the set of one or morewafers (in the case of a single wafer, of course, there will not be anyrelative slip since there is only one wafer; however, this parameter maystill be calculated, if desired, to provide other information, e.g., anindication of how much the size of the wafer has changed due to thermalexpansion or contraction). A slip amount of zero would be indicativethat the wafers in the stack are in generally perfect alignment.Non-zero slip amounts would indicate that at least some wafers are notin alignment. Some amount of misalignment may, in some instances, bepermissible depending on the placement requirements for a given stationin a semiconductor processing tool, although there will typically be athreshold slip amount that, if exceeded, will generate an errorcondition or cause remedial action to be taken.

The slip amount may be a metric that is based on the differences in sizebetween the nominal wafer diameter, e.g., 300 mm, and the diameter ofthe smallest circle. For example, the slip amount may be evaluated basedon the difference in diameters between the nominal wafer diameter andthe smallest circle diameter (or the difference in radii or the ratiobetween the two diameters or radii, if desired).

Another parameter that may be obtained once the smallest circle isdetermined, as indicated in block 314, is the center deviation, whichrefers to the deviation between the nominal center point of the endeffector and the center point of the smallest circle. In FIGS. 16 and17, the center deviation is defined by an X-offset 1644 (−0.2 mm in thisexample) and a Y-offset 1646 (−0.9 mm in this example)

One or both of the center deviation and the slip amount for a givenwafer stack may be evaluated by the robot arm controller and then usedto affect the handling of wafers. For example, in block 316, adetermination may be made as to whether the slip amount is greater thana predetermined threshold amount. Such an amount, for example, may bepre-selected based on the specifications of the piece of equipmentequipped with the enhanced AWC system. For example, a buffer station mayrequire that all 300 mm wafers deposited in it fit within a cylindricallimit region envelope of 305 mm. In actual practice, such a requirementmay be evaluated by checking several predetermined locations around thecylindrical limit region envelope to see if any wafers intersect withsuch locations. For example, a buffer station may have three, four, ormore vertically oriented through-beam optical sensors (separate from thethrough-beam optical sensors used in the enhanced AWC system; forclarity, reference may be made herein to “first through-beam opticalsensors” that are part of the enhanced AWC system and “secondthrough-beam optical sensors” which may be used as protrusion sensors ina wafer receptacle), such as protrusion sensors 440 from FIG. 4, thatare placed at different locations along a circular perimeter that is atleast larger than the wafer diameters of the wafers that the bufferstation is intended to hold (although it will be understood that theprotrusion sensors need not necessarily be laid out along a circularperimeter—other perimeter shapes may be used, and the limit regionenvelope does not even need to be a cylindrical shape—other shapes maybe used as well, as appropriate). If a wafer intersects with the opticalbeam of any of these through-beam optical sensors, then it may trigger afault condition. While it may be feasible to then attempt to maneuverthe wafer stack within the station such that none of the optical beamsof the through-beam optical sensors intersects with a wafer, if the slipamount is too great, then it will not be possible to move the stack as awhole to achieve such a goal (short of removing it entirely). By usingthe slip amount and an appropriately set threshold, a determination maybe made as soon as wafer stack measurement with the enhanced AWC systemis complete as to whether or not the wafer stack can be placed withinsuch a station without causing a fault condition.

If the slip amount is less than the threshold, i.e., it is possible tolocate the wafer stack within the station and stay within acceptableoperational tolerances, then the technique may proceed to block 318, inwhich a wafer centering correction may be made. For example, the waferhandling robot 418 may be controlled so as to move the nominal centerpoint 414 to the target location for the nominal center point 414 at thestation associated with the enhanced AWC system, e.g., the center of thefirst wafer receptacle 430A in this example. If there is centerdeviation, then the wafer handling robot 418 may be controlled to adjustthe placement of the wafer by an amount that would effectively cancelout the center deviation, e.g., adjust the placement of the waferrelative to the target destination by the X- and Y-offsets discussedearlier. Such adjustment would cause the target location in the firstwafer receptacle 430A to be aligned with the center of the smallestcircle for the stack 404 of wafers 402 instead of the nominal centerpoint 414 of the end effector. As a result, the stack 404 of wafers 402would generally be centered within the cylindrical envelope discussedearlier, thus reducing the chance that a wafer might be detected ashaving strayed beyond the bounds of the cylindrical envelope.

Once the stack 404 of wafers 402 has been adjusted to center thesmallest circle on the target point in the first wafer receptacle 430A,then the wafer handling robot 418 may be caused, in block 320, to lowerthe stack 404 of wafers 402 down onto the support shelves 432 withoutcausing further XY translation. In block 322, the wafer transferoperation may be completed and the wafer handling robot 418 may thenproceed to perform other operations, as needed.

If the slip amount is determined in block 316 to be larger than thethreshold amount, then the technique may proceed to block 324, in whichthe wafers may be withdrawn from the first wafer receptacle 430A andplaced in a temporary storage location, e.g., into a FOUP, a buffer, orsome other receptacle configured to support the wafers while the waferhandling robot 418 transfers the wafers 402 individually to the firstwafer receptacle 430A during a second time period after the first timeperiod. In this example, the temporary storage location is the secondwafer receptacle 430B. While wafer receptacles 430A and 430E are shownas generally structurally identical here, it will be understood that thewafer receptacles 430A and 430B maybe structurally and/or functionallydifferent in actual practice. FIG. 6 depicts the wafer handling robot418 and wafers 402 after the wafers 402 have been withdrawn from thefirst wafer receptacle 430A and just prior to the insertion of thewafers 402 into the second wafer receptacle 430B. In FIG. 7, the waferhandling robot 418 has placed the wafers 402 into the second waferreceptacle 430B.

In block 326, the wafer handling robot 418 may be caused to retrieve asingle wafer of the first set of one or more wafers from the secondwafer receptacle 4308. In order to do so, it may be necessary, in someimplementations, to reconfigure the end effector 424 of the waferhandling robot 418 (or to use a different robot arm with an end effectorconfigured to pick up only one wafer at a time). In this example, theend effector 424 has, as discussed earlier, two portions: a single endeffector 428 and a stack end effector 426. The single end effector 428may include only a single blade 408 and be configured to only lift asingle wafer 402 at a time. The stack end effector 426 may include N-1blades, where N is the number of wafers in the first set of one or morewafers. In this example, there are five wafers 402 in the first set ofone or more wafers 402, so N=5 and there are 5−1=4 blades 408 that arepart of the stack end effector 426. The single end effector 428 and thestack end effector 426 may be movable relative to one another, e.g., thestack end effector 426 may be rotated such that the blades 408 of thestack end effector 426 can be caused to not engage with wafers 402 inthe first set of one or more wafers 402 when the single end effector 428is used to retrieve a wafer 402 in the first set of one or more wafers402.

This is shown in FIGS. 8 and 9. In FIG. 8, the wafer handling robot 418has been caused to withdraw from the second wafer receptacle 430B,leaving the wafers 402 temporarily placed in the second wafer receptacle430B. Once clear of the second wafer receptacle 430B, the stack endeffector 426 may be caused to rotate to the position shown relative tothe single end effector 428, e.g., 180° out-of-phase, as shown in FIG.9. Other mechanisms and techniques for getting the stack end effector426 out of the way of the single end effector 428 may be used as well orin place of the depicted implementation.

Once the wafer handling robot 418 is reconfigured for single-waferretrieval/handling, the wafer handling robot may be controlled in block326 so as to retrieve a single wafer 402, as shown in FIGS. 10 and 11,before proceeding to block 328 where the wafer handling robot 418 may becontrolled to cause the single wafer 402 to be returned to the firstwafer receptacle 430A and passed through the enhanced AWC system 434again, as shown in FIGS. 12 and 13. During the transition between thepositions shown in FIGS. 12 and 13, the through-beam optical sensors 412may be used to obtain indications of when the edge of the wafer 402intersects with the optical beams 436 emitted by the through-beamoptical sensors 412. The XY coordinates of the nominal center point 414at each such intersection may be determined in block 330 and used, alongwith the XY locations of the through-beam optical sensors 412, todetermine the locations of the edge intersection points relative to thenominal center point. This process is similar to the previous XYdeterminations made to determine the smallest circle. While the samenumber of coordinates may be determined as were determined for thesmallest circle determination, since there is only a single waferpresent, the technique may also be performed with as few as twothrough-beam optical sensors 412. Since there is only a single waferpresent, there is no need to determine slip amount, although thesmallest circle technique may nonetheless be performed if desired so asto more accurately locate the center of the wafer 402, e.g., if thewafer diameter is other than the expected wafer diameter (due to thermaleffects, for example).

Once the edge locations of the wafer 402 relative to the nominal centerpoint 414 have been determined, a determination may be made in block 332of the location of the center of the wafer 402 relative to the nominalcenter point 414 of the end effector. Such a determination, as mentionedabove, may be made using the techniques discussed earlier with respectto the smallest circle determination. If desired, a simpler techniquemay be used in which it is assumed that the wafer 402 is of the properdiameter and any three of the relative coordinates can be used todetermine a circle that is assumed to be representative of the wafer andcentered on the wafer 402. The X- and Y-offsets between the calculatedwafer center and the nominal center point 414 may be used to determinethe center deviation of the single wafer 402, and then, when the wafer402 is placed in the first wafer receptacle 430A, used to adjust theplacement of the wafer 402 such that the center of the wafer 402 isaligned with the target location in the first wafer receptacle 430A.

In block 336, a determination may be made if further wafers of the firstset of one or more wafers remain in the second wafer receptacle 430B. Ifso, then the technique may return to block 326 and the process may berepeated until all of the wafers in the first set of one or more wafershave been transferred to the first wafer receptacle 430A. Since thewafers 402 are all individually transferred to the first waferreceptacle 420A, this provides the opportunity to correct the placementof each wafer 402 independently, allowing inter-wafer displacements inthe stack of wafers to be eliminated (or at least greatly reduced).However, the one-by-one transfer of the wafers will take significantlylonger than a bulk transfer of multiple wafers simultaneously.

Once it has been determined that all of the wafers 402 in the first setof one or more wafers 402 have been transferred to the first waferreceptacle 430A, then the technique may proceed to block 338, at whichpoint the wafer handling robot may be used to perform other operations.

As noted above, in some implementations, a controller may be included aspart of the above-described systems or may be used to cause some or allof the above techniques to be performed. Such systems may includesemiconductor processing equipment, including a processing tool ortools, chamber or chambers, a platform or platforms for processing,and/or specific processing components (a wafer pedestal, a gas flowsystem, etc.) and other items not specifically discussed herein. Thesesystems may be integrated with electronics for controlling theiroperation before, during, and after processing of a semiconductor waferor substrate. These electronics may be referred to as a “controller”which may control various components or subparts of the system orsystems. The controller, depending on the processing requirements and/orthe type of system, may be programmed to cause any of the techniquesdisclosed herein to be performed, including, for example, controlling awafer handling robot to perform wafer transfer operations in accord withthe concepts discussed herein, scanning of wafers by enhanced AWCsystems, and then potentially causing subsequent corrective actions tobe taken, e.g., individual placement of wafers into a wafer receptacleand/or re-centering of placed wafers prior to placement of the wafers.

Broadly speaking, the controller may be defined as electronics havingvarious integrated circuits, logic, memory, and/or software that receiveinstructions, issue instructions, control operation of various operablyconnected pieces of equipment, and the like. The integrated circuits mayinclude chips in the form of firmware that store program instructions,digital signal processors (DSPs), chips defined as application specificintegrated circuits (ASICs), and/or one or more microprocessors, ormicrocontrollers that execute program instructions (e.g., software).Program instructions may be instructions communicated to the controllerin the form of various individual settings (or program files), definingoperational parameters for carrying out a particular wafer handlingprocess for a semiconductor wafer. The operational parameters may, insome embodiments, include aspects such as nominal wafer size, robot armparameters, placement envelopes, etc.

The controller, in some implementations, may be a part of or coupled toa computer that is integrated with, coupled to the system, otherwisenetworked to the system, or a combination thereof. For example, thecontroller may be in the “cloud” or all or a part of a fab host computersystem, which can allow for remote access of the wafer processingsystem. The computer may enable remote access to the system to monitorcurrent progress of fabrication operations, examine a history of pastfabrication operations, examine trends or performance metrics from aplurality of fabrication operations, to change parameters of currentprocessing, to set processing steps to follow a current processing, orto start a new process. In some examples, a remote computer (e.g. aserver) can provide process recipes to a system over a network, whichmay include a local network or the Internet. The remote computer mayinclude a user interface that enables entry or programming of parametersand/or settings, which are then communicated to the system from theremote computer. In some examples, the controller receives instructionsin the form of data, which specify parameters for each of the processingsteps to be performed during one or more operations, e.g., parametersgoverning wafer transfer operations. It should be understood that theparameters may be specific to the type of wafer transfer process to beperformed and the type of tool that the controller is configured tointerface with or control. Thus as described above, the controller maybe distributed, such as by comprising one or more discrete controllersthat are networked together and working towards a common purpose, suchas the processes and controls described herein. An example of adistributed controller for such purposes would be one or more integratedcircuits in a semiconductor processing tool in communication with one ormore integrated circuits located remotely (such as at the platform levelor as part of a remote computer) that combine to control a waferhandling process.

Without limitation, example semiconductor processing tools havingenhanced AWC systems and wafer handling robots as described herein mayinclude additional components such as one or more plasma etch chambersor modules, deposition chambers or modules, spin-rinse chambers ormodules, metal plating chambers or modules, clean chambers or modules,bevel edge etch chambers or modules, physical vapor deposition (PVD)chambers or modules, chemical vapor deposition (CUD) chambers ormodules, atomic layer deposition (ALD) chambers or modules, atomic layeretch (ALE) chambers or modules, ion implantation chambers or modules,track chambers or modules, or any other semiconductor processing systemsthat may be associated or used in the fabrication and/or manufacturingof semiconductor wafers.

Depending on the process step or steps to be performed by the tool, thecontroller may communicate with one or more of other tool circuits ormodules, other tool components, cluster tools, other tool interfaces,adjacent tools, neighboring tools, tools located throughout a factory, amain computer, another controller, or tools used in material transportthat bring containers of wafers to and from tool locations and/or loadports in a semiconductor manufacturing factory.

The phrase “for each <item> of the one or more <items>,” if used herein,should be understood to be inclusive of both a single-item group andmultiple-item groups, i.e., the phrase “for . . . each” is used in thesense that it is used in programming languages to refer to each item ofwhatever population of items is referenced. For example, if thepopulation of items referenced is a single item, then “each” would referto only that single item (despite the fact that dictionary definitionsof “each” frequently define the term to refer to “every one of two ormore things”) and would not imply that there must be at least two ofthose items.

It is to be further understood that the term “stack” or “stackedarrangement,” as used herein, is not only inclusive of arrangements ofmultiple items, but also of a single item. Thus, for example, a “stackof one or more items” would be inclusive of a single such item (a“stack” of one) as well as a stack of multiple instances of such anitem. Similarly, “one or more items placed in a stacked arrangement”would be inclusive of a single item as well as a plurality of such itemsstacked, for example, one on top of another. It is to be furtherunderstood that reference to “one or more items” is generally inclusiveof both the singular case, e.g., reference to use of a single such item,or the plural case, e.g., reference to a plurality of such items.

The term “optical beam” is used herein to refer to light that may beemitted from a light source or emitter; a light source may emit multipleoptical beams simultaneously in different directions, e.g., anomnidirectional light source may emit optical beams in all or almost alldirections simultaneously. In such a light source, the optical beamsthat are generally emitted upwards and downwards may be characterized asbeing vertically oriented optical beams, whereas the optical beams thatare emitted horizontally may be characterized as being horizontallyoriented optical beams. For light emitters or sources that emitcollimated light, there may be only a limited number of optical beamsemitted—however, the vast majority of the light energy that is releasedfor such emitters or light sources may be concentrated in a singleoptical beam (or a cluster of optical beams that are generally allwithin a very limited angular range, e.g., such as may be the case forlasers or similar light sources. Thus, a laser that emits a beam along avertical axis and an omnidirectional light that emits at least somelight along a vertical axis would both be described as emittingvertically oriented optical beams.

The term “wafer,” as used herein, may refer to semiconductor wafers orsubstrates or other similar types of wafers or substrates.

It is also to be understood that the use of ordinal indicators, e.g.,(a), (b), (c), . . . , herein is for organizational purposes only, andis not intended to convey any particular sequence or importance to theitems associated with each ordinal indicator. For example, “(a) obtaininformation regarding velocity and (b) obtain information regardingposition” would be inclusive of obtaining information regarding positionbefore obtaining information regarding velocity, obtaining informationregarding velocity before obtaining information regarding position, andobtaining information regarding position simultaneously with obtaininginformation regarding velocity. There may nonetheless be instances inwhich some items associated with ordinal indicators may inherentlyrequire a particular sequence, e.g., “(a) obtain information regardingvelocity, (b) determine a first acceleration based on the informationregarding velocity, and (c) obtain information regarding position”; inthis example, (a) would need to be performed (b) since (b) relies oninformation obtained in (a)-(c), however, could be performed before orafter either of (a) or (b).

Various modifications to the implementations described in thisdisclosure may be readily apparent to those skilled in the art, and thegeneric principles defined herein may be applied to otherimplementations without departing from the spirit or scope of thisdisclosure. Thus, the claims are not intended to be limited to theimplementations shown herein, but are to be accorded the widest scopeconsistent with this disclosure, the principles and the novel featuresdisclosed herein.

Certain features that are described in this specification in the contextof separate implementations also can be implemented in combination in asingle implementation. Conversely, various features that are describedin the context of a single implementation also can be implemented inmultiple implementations separately or in any suitable sub-combination.Moreover, although features may be described above as acting in certaincombinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more featuresfrom a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from thecombination, and the claimed combination may be directed to asub-combination or variation of a sub-combination.

Similarly, while operations are depicted in the drawings in a particularorder, this should not be understood as requiring that such operationsbe performed in the particular order shown or in sequential order, orthat all illustrated operations be performed, to achieve desirableresults. Further, the drawings may schematically depict one more exampleprocesses in the form of a flow diagram. However, other operations thatare not depicted can be incorporated in the example processes that areschematically illustrated. For example, one or more additionaloperations can be performed before, after, simultaneously, or betweenany of the illustrated operations. In certain circumstances,multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous. Moreover, theseparation of various system components in the implementations describedabove should not be understood as requiring such separation in allimplementations, and it should be understood that the described programcomponents and systems can generally be integrated together in a singlesoftware product or packaged into multiple software products.Additionally, other implementations are within the scope of thefollowing claims. In some cases, the actions recited in the claims canbe performed in a different order and still achieve desirable results.

1. An apparatus for handling one or more wafers of a nominal diameterD₁, the apparatus comprising: a wafer handling robot configured tosupport the one or more wafers of nominal diameter D₁ when the one ormore wafers of nominal diameter D₁ are placed thereupon; a firstedge-detection system; and a controller that includes one or moreprocessors and one or more memory devices, wherein: the one or moreprocessors, the one or more memory devices, the wafer handling robot,and the first edge-detection system are operably connected with eachother, and the one or more memory devices store computer-executableinstructions for controlling the one or more processors to: a) obtaininformation regarding a first reference point of the wafer handlingrobot; b) determine that a first set of one or more wafers is supportedby the wafer handling robot, the first set of one or more wafersdefining a silhouette edge in a horizontal plane when viewed along avertical axis; c) cause the first edge-detection system to obtaininformation indicative of first horizontal coordinates of at least fivepoints along the silhouette edge of the first set of one or more wafersrelative to the first reference point; d) determine, for the first setof one or more wafers, the smallest circle that, when viewed along avertical axis, circumscribes the first horizontal coordinates of the atleast five points determined in (c); e) determine, for the first set ofone or more wafers, a first center deviation by determining informationindicative of the length and direction of a first reference line segmentextending from the center of the smallest circle for the first set ofone or more wafers to the first reference point; f) determine a firstslip amount for the first set of one or more wafers that is based on thedifference between the diameter of the smallest circle and D₁; and g)determine whether at least one of the first slip amount for the firstset of one or more wafers and the first center deviation for the firstset of one or more wafers is or are indicative of a wafer alignmenterror condition.
 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the firstedge-detection system includes three first through-beam optical sensors,wherein each first through-beam optical sensor is: configured to emit acorresponding vertically oriented optical beam when activated,positioned such that the furthest horizontal distance between any of theoptical beams, when the first through-beam optical sensors areactivated, is less than D₁, and configured to register, when the firstthrough-beam optical sensor is activated, when the optical beam emittedthereby intersects an edge of an object.
 3. The apparatus of claim 1,wherein the first edge-detection system includes a machine-vision systemand the machine-vision system is configured to obtain the informationindicative of the first horizontal coordinates of the at least fivepoints along the silhouette edge of the first set of one or more wafersrelative to the first reference point.
 4. The apparatus of claim 1,wherein the first edge-detection system includes one or more itemsselected from the group consisting of: a set of three or more directthrough-beam optical sensors, a set of three or more reflectivethrough-beam optical sensors, a machine vision measurement system, and aset of three or more capacitive sensors.
 5. The apparatus of claim 1,wherein: the wafer handling robot includes an end effector having Nblades, the first set of one or more wafers includes N or fewer wafers,each blade is configured to support one of the wafers of nominaldiameter D₁, and N>1.
 6. The apparatus of claim 5, wherein: the N bladesinclude a first set of N-1 blades that are fixed with respect to oneanother, the first set of N-1 blades are configured to move as a unitrelative to a portion of the wafer handling robot to which the first setof N-1 blades are attached, and the blade of the end effector that isnot in the first set of N-1 blades is configured to be movable relativeto the portion of the wafer handling robot to which the first set of N-1blades are attached independently of the first set of N-1 blades.
 7. Theapparatus of claim 6, wherein N=5.
 8. The apparatus of claim 1, whereinthe wafer handling robot includes an end effector having exactly oneblade and the first set of one or more wafers includes exactly onewafer.
 9. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising: a first waferreceptacle including one or more first wafer supports configured toreceive the first set of one or more wafers, wherein the one or morefirst wafer supports are each configured to support a wafer placedthereupon and within a limit region envelope associated with the firstwafer receptacle and having a minimum horizontal dimension of D₂,wherein D₂ is greater than D₁ by at least a first threshold amount. 10.The apparatus of claim 9, wherein the first wafer receptacle furtherincludes a second edge-detection system configured to register, when thesecond edge-detection system is activated, when an edge of an objectintersects one or more second horizontal locations monitored by thatsecond edge-detection system.
 11. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein theone or more memory devices further store computer-executableinstructions for further controlling the one or more processors to: h)cause the wafer handling robot to place at least some of the wafers inthe first set of one or more wafers into the first wafer receptacleresponsive, at least in part, to a determination that the first slipamount for the first set of one or more wafers is less than the firstthreshold amount.
 12. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the one or morememory devices further store computer-executable instructions forfurther controlling the one or more processors to: i) determine a firstwafer offset for the first set of one or more wafers based on theinformation indicative of the length and orientation of the firstreference line segment for the first set of one or more wafers; and j)cause the wafer handling robot to operate, during one or more operationswhere the first set of one or more wafers is supported by the waferhandling robot, to place the at least some of the wafers in the firstset of one or more wafers into the first wafer receptacle in accordancewith the first wafer offset.
 13. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein theone or more memory devices further store computer-executableinstructions for further controlling the one or more processors to: h)cause the wafer handling robot to place the wafers in the first set ofone or more wafers into a second wafer receptacle responsive, at leastin part, to a determination that the first slip amount for the first setof one or more wafers is more than the first threshold amount; and i)cause, after (h) and during a second time period, the wafer handlingrobot to, for each wafer in the first set of one or more wafers:retrieve the wafer from the second wafer receptacle, cause the firstedge-detection system, while the wafer is supported by the waferhandling robot, to obtain information indicative of at least threesecond horizontal coordinates along the silhouette edge of the waferrelative to the first reference point, determine an estimated centerpoint of the wafer relative to the first reference point using the atleast three second horizontal coordinates, determine a second centerdeviation by determining information indicative of the length anddirection of a second reference line segment extending from theestimated center point of the wafer to the first reference point,determine a second wafer offset for the wafer based on the informationindicative of the length and orientation of the second reference linesegment for the wafer, and cause the wafer handling robot to operate,during one or more operations where the wafer is supported by the waferhandling robot, to place the wafer into the first wafer receptacle inaccordance with the second wafer offset.
 14. A method for handling oneor more wafers of a nominal diameter D₁, the method comprising: a)retrieving a first set of one or more wafers of nominal diameter D₁using a wafer handling robot configured to support the first set of oneor more wafers when the first set of one or more wafers is placedthereupon, the first set of one or more wafers defining a silhouetteedge in a horizontal plane when viewed along a vertical axis; b)obtaining information regarding a first reference point of the waferhandling robot using a first edge-detection system; c) obtaininginformation indicative of first horizontal coordinates of at least fivepoints along the silhouette edge of the first set of one or more wafersrelative to the first reference point using the first edge-detectionsystem; d) determining, for the first set of one or more wafers, thesmallest circle that, when viewed along a vertical axis, circumscribesthe first horizontal coordinates of the at least five points determinedin (c); e) determining, for the first set of one or more wafers, a firstcenter deviation by determining information indicative of the length anddirection of a first reference line segment extending from the center ofthe smallest circle for the first set of one or more wafers to the firstreference point; f) determining a first slip amount for the first set ofone or more wafers that is based on the difference between the diameterof the smallest circle and D₁; and g) determining whether at least oneof the first slip amount for the first set of one or more wafers and thefirst center deviation for the first set of one or more wafers is or areindicative of a wafer alignment error condition.
 15. The method of claim14, wherein: the first edge-detection system includes three firstthrough-beam optical sensors; each first through-beam optical sensor is:configured to emit a corresponding vertically oriented optical beam whenactivated, positioned such that the furthest horizontal distance betweenany of the optical beams, when the first through-beam optical sensorsare activated, is less than D₁, and configured to register, when thefirst through-beam optical sensor is activated, when the optical beamemitted thereby intersects an edge of an object; and c) is performed byobtaining horizontal coordinates for each instance where the silhouetteedge of the first set of one or more wafers intersects one of theoptical beams emitted by one of the first through-beam optical sensors.16. The method of claim 14, wherein: the first edge-detection systemincludes a machine-vision system and the machine-vision system isconfigured to obtain the information indicative of the first horizontalcoordinates of the at least five points along the silhouette edge of thefirst set of one or more wafers relative to the first reference point;and c) is performed using the machine-vision system to obtain thehorizontal coordinates of the at least five points.
 17. The method ofclaim 14, wherein the first edge-detection system includes one or moreitems selected from the group consisting of: a set of three or moredirect through-beam optical sensors, a set of three or more reflectivethrough-beam optical sensors, a machine vision measurement system, and aset of three or more capacitive sensors.
 18. The method of claim 14,wherein: the wafer handling robot includes an end effector having Nblades, the first set of one or more wafers includes N or fewer wafers,each blade is configured to support one of the wafers of nominaldiameter D₁, and N>1.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein: the N bladesinclude a first set of N-1 blades that are fixed with respect to oneanother, the first set of N-1 blades are configured to move as a unitrelative to a portion of the wafer handling robot to which the first setof N-1 blades are attached, and the blade of the end effector that isnot in the first set of N-1 blades is configured to be movable relativeto the portion of the wafer handling robot to which the first set of N-1blades are attached independently of the first set of N-1 blades. 20.The method of claim 19, wherein N=5.
 21. The method of claim 14, whereinthe wafer handling robot includes an end effector having exactly oneblade and the first set of one or more wafers includes exactly onewafer.
 22. The method of claim 14, wherein: D₁ is less than D₂ by atleast a first threshold amount, D₂ is the minimum horizontal dimensionof a limit region envelope associated with a first wafer receptacleincluding one or more first wafer supports configured to receive thefirst set of one or more wafers, and the one or more first wafersupports are each configured to support a wafer placed thereupon andwithin the limit region envelope.
 23. The method of claim 22, whereinthe first wafer receptacle further includes a second edge-detectionsystem configured to register, when the second edge-detection system isactivated, when an edge of an object intersects one or more secondhorizontal locations monitored by that second edge-detection system. 24.The method of claim 22, further comprising: determining, in (g), thatthe first slip amount for the first set of one or more wafers is lessthan the first threshold amount, and h) causing the wafer handling robotto place at least some of the wafers in the first set of one or morewafers into the first wafer receptacle responsive, at least in part, tothe determination that the first slip amount for the first set of one ormore wafers is less than the first threshold amount.
 25. The method ofclaim 24, further comprising: i) determining a first wafer offset forthe first set of one or more wafers based on the information indicativeof the length and orientation of the first reference line segment forthe first set of one or more wafers; and j) causing the wafer handlingrobot to operate, during one or more operations where the first set ofone or more wafers is supported by the wafer handling robot, to placethe at least some of the wafers in the first set of one or more wafersinto the first wafer receptacle in accordance with the first waferoffset.
 26. The method of claim 22, further comprising: h) causing thewafer handling robot to place the wafers in the first set of one or morewafers into a second wafer receptacle responsive, at least in part, to adetermination that the first slip amount for the first set of one ormore wafers is more than the first threshold amount; and i) causing,after (h) and during a second time period, the wafer handling robot to,for each wafer in the first set of one of more wafers: retrieve thewafer from the second wafer receptacle, cause the first edge-detectionsystem, while the wafer is supported by the wafer handling robot, toobtain information indicative of at least three second horizontalcoordinates along the silhouette edge of the wafer relative to the firstreference point, determine an estimated center point of the waferrelative to the first reference point using the at least three secondhorizontal coordinates, determine a second center deviation bydetermining information indicative of the length and direction of asecond reference line segment extending from the estimated center pointof the wafer to the first reference point, determine a second waferoffset for the wafer based on the information indicative of the lengthand orientation of the second reference line segment for the wafer, andcause the wafer handling robot to operate, during one or more operationswhere the wafer is supported by the wafer handling robot, to place thewafer into the first wafer receptacle in accordance with the secondwafer offset.
 27. A non-transitory, computer-readable medium storingcomputer-executable instructions thereon for controlling one or moreprocessors to: a) cause a first set of one or more wafers of nominaldiameter D₁ to be retrieved using a wafer handling robot configured tosupport the first set of one or more wafers when the first set of one ormore wafers is placed thereupon, the first set of one or more wafersdefining a silhouette edge in a horizontal plane when viewed along avertical axis; b) obtain information regarding a first reference pointof the wafer handling robot using a first edge-detection system; c)obtain information indicative of first horizontal coordinates of atleast five points along the silhouette edge of the first set of one ormore wafers relative to the first reference point using the firstedge-detection system; d) determine, for the first set of one or morewafers, the smallest circle that, when viewed along a vertical axis,circumscribes the first horizontal coordinates of the at least fivepoints determined in (c); e) determine, for the first set of one or morewafers, a first center deviation by determining information indicativeof the length and direction of a first reference line segment extendingfrom the center of the smallest circle for the first set of one or morewafers to the first reference point; f) determine a first slip amountfor the first set of one or more wafers that is based on the differencebetween the diameter of the smallest circle and D₁; and g) determinewhether at least one of the first slip amount for the first set of oneor more wafers and the first center deviation for the first set of oneor more wafers is or are indicative of a wafer misalignment condition.28. The non-transitory, computer-readable medium of claim 27, wherein:the first edge-detection system includes three first through-beamoptical sensors; each first through-beam optical sensor is: configuredto emit a corresponding vertically oriented optical beam when activated,positioned such that the furthest horizontal distance between any of theoptical beams, when the first through-beam optical sensors areactivated, is less than D₁, and configured to register, when the firstthrough-beam optical sensor is activated, when the optical beam emittedthereby intersects an edge of an object; and the non-transitory,computer-readable medium further stores instructions for controlling theone or more processors to operate the three first through-beam opticalsensors to cause the horizontal coordinates of (c) to be obtained foreach instance where the silhouette edge of the first set of one or morewafers intersects one of the optical beams emitted by one of the firstthrough-beam optical sensors.
 29. The non-transitory, computer-readablemedium of claim 27, wherein: the first edge-detection system includes amachine-vision system and the machine-vision system is configured toobtain the information indicative of the first horizontal coordinates ofthe at least five points along the silhouette edge of the first set ofone or more wafers relative to the first reference point; and thenon-transitory, computer-readable medium further stores instructions forcontrolling the one or more processors to interface with themachine-vision system and to cause the horizontal coordinates of (c) tobe obtained using the machine-vision system.
 30. The non-transitory,computer-readable medium of claim 27, wherein the first edge-detectionsystem includes, and the non-transitory, computer-readable mediumfurther stores instructions for causing the one or more processors tointerface and communicate with, one or more items selected from thegroup consisting of: a set of three or more direct through-beam opticalsensors, a set of three or more reflective through-beam optical sensors,a machine vision measurement system, and a set of three or morecapacitive sensors.
 31. The non-transitory, computer-readable medium ofclaim 27, wherein: D₁ is less than D₂ by at least a first thresholdamount, D₂ is the minimum horizontal dimension of a limit regionenvelope associated with a first wafer receptacle including one or morefirst wafer supports configured to receive the first set of one or morewafers, and the one or more first wafer supports are each configured tosupport a wafer placed thereupon and within the limit region envelope.32. The non-transitory, computer-readable medium of claim 31, whereinthe non-transitory, computer-readable medium further stores instructionsfor controlling the one or more processors to: determine, in (g), thatthe first slip amount for the first set of one or more wafers is lessthan the first threshold amount, and h) cause the wafer handling robotto place at least some of the wafers in the first set of one or morewafers into the first wafer receptacle responsive, at least in part, tothe determination that the first slip amount for the first set of one ormore wafers is less than the first threshold amount.
 33. Thenon-transitory, computer-readable medium of claim 32, wherein thenon-transitory, computer-readable medium further stores instructions forcontrolling the one or more processors to: i) determine a first waferoffset for the first set of one or more wafers based on the informationindicative of the length and orientation of the first reference linesegment for the first set of one or more wafers; and j) cause the waferhandling robot to operate, during one or more operations where the firstset of one or more wafers is supported by the wafer handling robot, toplace the at least some of the wafers in the first set of one or morewafers into the first wafer receptacle in accordance with the firstwafer offset.
 34. The non-transitory, computer-readable medium of claim31, wherein the non-transitory, computer-readable medium further storesinstructions for controlling the one or more processors to: h) cause thewafer handling robot to place the wafers in the first set of one or morewafers into a second wafer receptacle responsive, at least in part, to adetermination that the first slip amount for the first set of one ormore wafers is more than the first threshold amount; and i) cause, after(h) and during a second time period, the wafer handling robot to, foreach wafer in the first set of wafers: retrieve the wafer from thesecond wafer receptacle, cause the first edge-detection system, whilethe wafer is supported by the wafer handling robot, to obtaininformation indicative of at least three second horizontal coordinatesalong the silhouette edge of the wafer relative to the first referencepoint, determine an estimated center point of the wafer relative to thefirst reference point using the at least three second horizontalcoordinates, determine a second center deviation by determininginformation indicative of the length and direction of a second referenceline segment extending from the estimated center point of the wafer tothe first reference point, determine a second wafer offset for the waferbased on the information indicative of the length and orientation of thesecond reference line segment for the wafer, and cause the waferhandling robot to operate, during one or more operations where the waferis supported by the wafer handling robot, to place the wafer into thefirst wafer receptacle in accordance with the second wafer offset.